IndexIntroductionWomen in the history of psychology (essay)Mary Whiton CalkinsLeta Stetter HollingworthMamie Phipps ClarkElisabeth Kübler-RossConclusionIntroductionThroughout the history of psychology, the best known and most appreciated names are largely on men. However, most psychology students and members of psychological societies are women. Between 1975 and 2007, 59.3% of doctoral students were women, but in 2017, women made up only 49% of psychology professors. As a result, those who decide to work in higher education are often much less represented than men. Additionally, this lack of diversity in the workplace has perpetuated negative stereotypes about women of being less intelligent or competent, creating negative environments for women. While evidence has suggested that students tend to perform more positively when exposed to diverse faculty, this is often not the case in many workplaces. The representation of important women in the history of psychology discussed in this essay can help inspire more women to take on leadership roles in psychology and continue to create more groundbreaking scientific works and create social change. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an original essayWomen in the history of psychology (essay)Mary Whiton CalkinsA notable woman in psychology was Mary Whiton Calkins, born in 1863, she was best known for creating the pair association technique and her developments in self psychology. The paired association technique is a technical method for studying memory, invented in 1894 and involves the association and categorization of ideas (Calkins, 1894). In 1892 Calkins was invited as a guest to Harvard but was unable to enroll as a student because she was a woman. While at Harvard he was able to conduct research in Professor Munsterberg's laboratory and here he invented the technique of paired associations. Munsterberg later wrote a recommendation to Harvard to grant Calkins a PH. D degree, however Harvard refused because it would not grant a degree to a woman (Furumoto, 1980). In 1902, Calkins and three other women studying at Harvard were approved as candidates for a Radcliff degree, however Calkins refused stating that she "could not take the easier route of accepting the degree", currently Harvard has not yet awarded Calkins a degree . In 1900, Calkins published articles that included his developments in self psychology. Self psychology was founded by Heinz Kohut and is the analysis of the self, through self-reflection to form a healthy sense of self and explores narcissism (Kohut, 1966). Calkins developed this concept by emphasizing the role of the self in its environments and the social role of the self (Calkins 1900, 1901). Furthermore, Calkins made many contributions to the psychology of women. In 1896, Calkins reviewed Joseph Jastrow's “A Study in Mental Statistics,” in which participants wrote one hundred words. She described women's responses as more repetitive than men's and less variable, while male participants' responses were more “helpful” and “constructive” (Jastrow, 1891). Calkins' argument for rejecting these findings was that it was "useless and impossible to attempt a distinction between male and female intellect... owing to our utter inability to eliminate the effect of environment" (Calkins, 1896). Additionally, in 1905, Mary Whiton Calkins became the first female president of the American Psychological Association (Furumoto, 1979). Mary Whiton Calkins' representation is important as she and her work paved the way for women to be empowered, notonly in psychology, to have higher education and create opportunities where women can have a voice in higher education and published research.Leta Stetter Hollingworth Another notable woman in the history of psychology is Leta Stetter Hollingworth. She is known for being an early feminist and for her contributions to clinical psychology, educational psychology, women's psychology, and her work with gifted children. Hollingworth initially aspired to work as a teacher in New York, but found she could not do so as she was a married woman. She later returned to school and received a PH. D in education in 1916, with her doctoral thesis intended to investigate the argument that woman would become incapacitated during menstruation, and therefore unable to perform well in the workplace during that period, making it less likely that woman was hired. Hollingworth performed daily assessments over the course of three months and found no relationship between menstruation and poor mental and motor performance. (Hollingworth, 1914). This was groundbreaking research for the women's suffrage movement of the time. Further research she conducted concerned the “male variability hypothesis.” The hypothesis suggests that men show greater variability in physical and psychological characteristics, including intelligence, than women. (Ellis, 1894). It was also one of the reasons why men, especially psychologists, considered women “mediocre”. Hollingworth's findings could conclude that men do not have greater intellectual variability than women (Hollingsworth, 1914) and therefore advanced women's status in society while encouraging others to research claims used to oppress women. Another of Hollingworth's successes is his work with gifted children. During her time as a teacher, she witnessed how many intelligent children were left alone and received little attention. Hollingworth developed the first course for gifted children, providing a meaningful and challenging education. In addition to this she published several books on education, one of which is "Children Above IQ" (1942), which included the first systematic studies of children with IQs above 180. Mamie Phipps ClarkMamie Phipps Clark was born in 1917 and is the first black woman to earn a doctorate in psychology from Columbia and second black person to earn a Ph.D. D of the university. She is best known for her research on the psychology of race and child development, as well as "The Clark Doll Test," a seminal piece of research used in the 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education case to demonstrate the harmful effects of segregation on children. Clark collaborated with her husband, Kenneth Bancroft Clark, on the Clark doll test, in which black children were shown two identical dolls except one white and one black. They were asked a series of questions about their preference between the two dolls, such as "Which doll is the 'bad' doll?" “Which doll is the 'cute' doll?” The results showed that 59% of children chose the black doll as the "bad" one, suggesting that skin color is a key factor in self-consciousness and could generate a sense of inferiority. (Clark and Clark, 1940). The Supreme Court then declared segregation in educational institutions unconstitutional (Tussman, 1963). Among other accomplishments, Clark improved the quality and accessibility of mental health services for minority children by opening the first full-time mental institution in Harlem, the Northside Testing and Consultation Center. The center offered psychological services to families and worked on.